ACA Distance Educator's ToolKit
Parsimony Exercises
Strategy | Grading | Student's Guide I - II - III - IV
The processes of reflection, knowledge organization, and the self-generation of meaning have proved to be quite effective in fostering meaningful learning (Baddeley, 1999; Haberlandt, 1999). Self-generating very short summaries (e.g., 25-word summaries) requires the student to reflect on the chapter read and abstract from the chapter the essential message or theme that characterizes the author's purpose in writing. This abstraction involves significant understanding and organization of the material addressed. It also reinforces quality over quantity in the student's writing.
Parsimony Statement exercises employ the Modern Cognitivist perspective concerning Metacognition, a tool to help students' awareness of the mental framework process.
This assignment can provide students with the opportunity to reflect on each chapter or unit and to generate short, meaningful summaries. Creating thoughtful summaries requires considerable cognitive organization and reflection, and results in significant meaning making. The amount of reading required by the instructor is reduced so that writing assessments can be turned in weekly or for each chapter or unit. Constant and Frequent feedback assists the learning process. Parsimony Exercises can be submitted electronically directly to the professor (recommended), or posted to a discussion web for peer review. Since many students will be new to the parsimony process, it is usually best to initially assign parsimony exercises for short, easy, and well written essays, then gradually introduce the students to longer and more difficult texts or entire chapters for them to summarize.
Each Chapter Summary should be a clear, concise, and coherently organized statement of the main ideas in the chapter. Specifically, each summary must be 25-words or less and should focus on the essential main ideas of the chapter. It is important to remember that the task is to represent the author's main ideas. Whether or not the student agrees with the main ideas is a different issue. Ultimately, in expressing the author's main ideas, the student will demonstrate his or her own understanding of the material.
Each summary should focus on ideas, rather than a delineation of terms or concepts. For example, consider the following example summary:
This section discusses the importance of learning, including its definition, and the nature of principles and theories of learning. This section provides important applications of these principles to higher education.
This summary accurately identifies/lists topics covered in the chapter; it does not, however, express the main points of the chapter. It is not a good summary for that reason. In addition, this summary is 31 words long - the 25-word limit is taken seriously.
Here are some questions the student can ask herself to judge her summaries:
- Could I have written this without reading the chapter?
- Are these the main points of the chapter?
- How is what I have written different from listing the topics covered?
- Does my summary capture the author's essential message?
- Is there another main idea or theme I can identify?
Summarizing Process:
The student will probably be most successful writing summaries if she reads carefully using the following strategies.
- List the most important concepts.
- Combine similar main points to shorten the list without losing any content or meaning.
- Organize the main points so similar terms and concepts are together.
- Write your summary from this organized and concise list.
- Do not forget that the purpose of writing the summary is to express the author's purpose for writing and to demonstrate your understanding of that purpose.
Each Chapter Summary Statement can be graded using the following criteria:
Structural Format (30%)
Is the summary 25 words or less?
Is the summary a coherent sentence, or sentences?
Are words such as "covers, describes, discusses, then, and concludes" avoided?
Does the summary avoid a simple listing of concepts, terms, or themes?
Clarity of Thought and Expression (70%)
Do the ideas accurately state the author's main points of the reading?
Are the ideas expressed well, well thought out, and integrated?
Does the summary reflect an understanding of the reading?
Are correct grammar and syntax used?References:
Baddeley, A. D. (1999). Essentials of human memory. East Sussex, UK:
Taylor & Francis Group.Haberlandt, K. (1999). Human memory: Exploration and application.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
A Student's Guide to Writing Summary Statements developed by
Dr. Peter Doolittle and Dr. Thomas Sherman at Virginia Tech:
In our experience short summaries are difficult to write. Short summary require very careful reading, considerable reflection on the reading, and a thoughtful selection or abstraction of the author's main message. To further complicate this difficult task, there are many possible correct expressions of main points that will capture well the author's apparent purpose.Thus, writing a short summary is a learning experience not merely a reporting activity. Most of us have to attend to two things as we learn to write short summaries.
The first is to develop a mindset or disposition to write like this. It is an unusual way of writing and most of us don't do it on a regular basis. However, there is considerable evidence that when readers do approach reading with the disposition to abstract the author's main points, they learn more, remember better and can apply or generalize their learning. Thus, we believe that even though learning to write short summaries can be challenging and frustrating, it is worth the effort.
The second thing most of us have to do in writing short summaries is to read differently. While we don't want to question anyone's motives, academic learning is often focused on extracting information that will be useful for answering test questions but for little else. From this perspective, reading is oriented to finding those critical facts and details that often appear on academic tests.
The approach to reading we are asking you to pursue with writing short summaries is quite different. We are asking you to read for understanding and transfer. That is, we want you to relate what you read to your own experience (for example, what is happening in your life right now that you can explain using the principles of classical conditioning? There is no question that there are events in your life that can be explained using the principles of classical conditioning?) and to how you can use these ideas to understand human learning more completely. And, we want you to think about how you can apply these ideas and principles in your work and other aspects of your life.
Reading in this way requires considerably more time and reflection. You will read and learn more about these processes as your work your way through this course (for example, the Zimmerman, et. al text covers these ideas in detail).
For, now we suggest that as you read you ask yourself some or all of the following questions as you read:
Could I explain this idea to others?
Can I put this information in my own words?
How can I explain something (everything) in my own life using these principles?
What ways can I apply this information to my work?
How do these ideas relate to what I have always believed about human learning?A good rule of thumb is to ask some or all of these questions and reflect on the material about every other page. However, if you come across a difficult concept, it is useful to do ask yourself these and other questions more often.
Another option is to take notes as you read. Outlining or taking notes in the margins of your book or on a separate paper are all good ideas. The key to reflecting on your reading is to review your notes and to relate your experience with the new information in the text. We do not recommend using a highlighter as you read as this is often a perfunctory activity for most readers.
Finally, it is a good idea to discuss the ideas your are studying with others. See if you can put into conversational language what you are reading. This can be a way to test your own understanding in addition to using the practice and chapter tests. A common term for this approach is active reading.
As you write your summaries, we have found that it is useful to ask yourself the questions we included in the syllabus. You may want to review these. It is also useful to write several summaries and then revise them into what you believe best captures the author's main points. Remember, there are many ways to accurately express the author's main points. If you explore alternative ways to express as well as to identify main points, you will develop for yourself a much richer understanding of the material. Also, you may want to use the process that we described in the syllabus as a guide to developing your summaries.
Remember that writing summaries is a learning process. Being able to capture a main point and express it clearly is a wonderful skill to develop. The main purpose of this course is to learn about human learning. One of the best ways to learn about human learning is to examine yourself as you learn and, at the same time, relate what you study to how you are learning. In a sense you become your own learning laboratory.
Learning is a reflective and thoughtful activity. We selected the activity of writing short summaries because it stimulates reflection and thoughtfulness. We believe that if you approach writing summaries from this perspective, you will find it an enlightening and enjoyable addition to your personal learning strategies. But, we have found that learning to write short summaries does take some time and effort - as does, it seems, everything that is worthwhile.
A Worked Example: Chapter 1 - Definitions and Perspectives of Learning:
The following comments and statements should be viewed as suggestions and not as the only way to engage in Summary Statement writing.
1. Look for, and write, all the main points of a chapter as you read.
2. Write main points as sentences, rather than simply listing the term or concept.As I read the chapter I extracted the following main points. These points are grouped by section headers for clarification, but you may wish to use other organizational structures such as grouping by subject, or even not grouping at all until after you have read the chapter and listed the main points. I have expressed these main points in my own words, rather than quotes from the text. Writing in my own words allows me to abstract sections of text, rather than relying on the author to have written a summary statement, and the process of abstraction facilitates my own learning. Finally, this list of main points in not THE list of main points. You may have excluded some of these points and included others.
Importance of Learning
a. Learning is an adaptive function, based on learning from experience.Defining Learning
b. Learning is a process whereby we acquire knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, and emotional reactions.
c. Learning is based on our experiences and results in some type of change - behavioral, mental, or both.Nature of Principles and Theories
d. Principles of learning result from experimentation and observation, and identify consistent relationships between specific factors and their effects on learning.
e. Theories identify underlying mechanisms or rationales that explain why principles have the affects that they do.Advantages of Theories
f. Theories are advantageous in that they (a) synthesize multiple principles under one explanation or theoretical perspective, and (b) lead to new research and applications of research.Disadvantages of Theories
g. It must be recognized that no theory explains the entirely of life or learning, thus theories have limitations, and also that theoretical perspectives often influence the nature of what research is conducted, thus possibly narrowing the knowledge created.Perspective on Theories and Principles
h. Principles tend to be fairly enduring, while theories tend to be more transient.
i. Good principles and theories ultimately provide a means to predict.Applying Principles and Theories
j. Theories and principles should be applied in school settings to increase student learning and understanding.______________________________________________________________________
3. After completing the chapter, review the list of main points and add or subtract main points as needed.
4. Combine similar main points to shorten the list without losing any content or meaning.I have tried to combine main points where it makes sense. This combination really represents the second iteration of abstraction. In Part I above, I abstracted directly from the chapter, now I'm abstracting my own writing. In combining various main points I have attempted to be true to the original main points while increasing the richness of each point.
Combining a, b, and c
A. Learning is an adaptive process, based on one's experiences, which results in a behavioral or mental change in knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, and emotional reactions.Combining d, e, h, and i
B. Theories provide underlying rationales that explain a synthesis of principles, which identify enduring cause-effect relations, and which ultimately lead to the ability to predict.Combining f and g
C. Theories are helpful in that they may synthesize a large body of research, however, this focused synthesis may also limit the range of future research.Maintaining j
D. Theories and principles should be applied in school settings to increase student learning and understanding.______________________________________________________________________
5. Organize the main points so similar terms and concepts are together.
In this case, with a short chapter, the combined main points resulted in such few points that there really is not a need to organize them further. In most chapters, however, there will tend to be clusters of main points that fit together.
A. Learning is an adaptive process, based on one's experiences, which results in a behavioral and/or mental change in knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, and emotional reactions.
B. Theories provide underlying rationales that explain a synthesis of principles, which identify enduring cause-effect relations, and which ultimately lead to the ability to predict.
C. Theories are helpful in that they may synthesize a large body of research, however, this focused synthesis may also limit the range of future research.
D. Theories and principles should be applied in school settings to increase student learning and understanding.
______________________________________________________________________
6. Write your summary from this organized and concise list.
When writing a short summary you should not try to pack every important point into the summary. Doing so often results in a list of topics covered and you recognize well by now that this is not what we're looking for. Besides trying to include every important idea is a short summary is an impossible task.
The goal in writing a short summary is for you to abstract and express what you believe is (are) the author's most critical message. Another way to think about this is, if you were talking to the author, what do you think the author would say was the reason for writing the chapter. Your challenge in writing the short summary is to identify the most critical, interesting, important, and memorable message for you and to express that message in a short summary.
The next three statements represent an original attempt at writing a summary statement, a second attempt, and a final attempt. You can see how the final version developed from the original attempt.
Original Attempt
Theories of learning, rationales for why learning occurs, are based on principles of learning, identified causal factors of learning, and student learning may be facilitated by the judicious application of these theories and principles of learning. [36 words]Revised Attempt
Judicious application of theories of learning, rationales for why learning occurs, and principles of learning, identified causal factors of learning, may be used to facilitate student learning. [27 words]Final Version
Judicious application of learning theories, rationales for why learning occurs, and learning principles, identified causal factors of learning, may be used to facilitate student learning. [25 words]
It is important to realize that summary statements need not be long, that is, good summary statements need not be 25 words in length. The following two examples are short, but effective, summary statements.
1. Theories of learning explain how learning occurs and are based on principles that identify conditions that cause learning. [18 words]
Explanation: This summary captures a main idea (that theories explain how learning occurs) of Chapter 1 and expresses very clearly the relation between these theories and their value (to promote learning), another important idea in Chapter 1.
2. Learning theories provide documented strategies that will promote learning. [9 words]
Explanation: This very short summary integrates two main points - learning theories are based on evidence and that theories can be useful because practitioners can use them to generate and validate or document effective intervention strategies.
Student Examples: Note how these examples could have been written from the main points listed in Part III. These examples are not perfect, but they do represent good Summary Statements.
Learning allows flexibility and adaptability through permanent behavioral and cognitive change. Understanding learning principles and theories are essential in promoting a positive, dynamic learning environment. (Brent Holt)
The principles supporting behaviorist (external observable change) and cognitivist (internal mental association change) theories explain how people learn, resulting in improved student experiences when applied. (Kim Owen)
Much of our behavior is learned through experience. By utilizing the principles and theories from both behaviorism and cognitivism, educators can create better learning environments. (Tracy McCoy)
Experience leads to changes in behavior or mental associations, allowing humans flexibility and adaptability. When synthesized, factors influencing learning help derive educational explanations and applications. (Nertha Nyirongo)
Non-Examples, Common Problems, and Explanations:
1. Chapter 1 defines learning, principles, and theories and applies these concepts to instructional settings.
Explanation: This summary is essentially a list of topics that are addressed in the chapter and that could be derived from the table of contents. This summary does not indicate the "take home message", that is, the author's main in point writing the chapter.
2. Behaviorists sees learning as a change in behavior due to experience, while cogntivists believe that learning is a change in thinking due to experience.
Explanation: This summary starts with a grammatical error and also contains a spelling mistake (i.e., cogntivists), resulting in an awkward summary. Also, the main point(s) of the chapter was not to simply provide a definition for behaviorism and cognitivism. This summary is too short sighted.
3. The main point of this chapter was to address definitions of learning, relate these definitions to principles and theories, identify the advantages and disadvantages of theories and principles, and to introduce two central theories of learning.
Explanation: This summary is essentially a listing summary. None of the concepts addressed are explained or placed in context. Also, the summary is 36 words in length, far too long.
4. Learning is explained in different ways by behaviorist and cognitivist psychologists. The ideas they develop lead to theories that aggregate their principles.
Explanation: This summary does address a main idea but not with much substance. It would have been better for the author to describe the differences between the two theories. This is a pretty good summary but not excellent.
5. This chapter says that learning is expressed in our behavior and in how we think. The author says knowing about learning is important in order to help students as teachers.
Explanation: This summary addresses a main idea - that learning is express in behavior and thinking. It is also the case that the author stresses the importance of applying the theories. So, this is a pretty good summary. But, the summary "wastes" words with the phrases: "This chapter says that" and "The author says ." As a result, other important points are left out and the summary is just pretty good rather than excellent.
Go to the next section: Authentic Tasks